|
CHAPTER
1
Why a Global, Multicultural Psychology of Women
|
1 |
Femininity
and Masculinity Are Socially Constructed 5 |
|
|
How
Many Genders Are There? 8 |
|
If
Gender Is the Issue, Why Focus on Women? 11 |
|
|
Should
a Psychology of Women Be “Feminist”? 13 |
|
Why
a Multicultural, Global Approach? 16 |
|
Stereotyping
and Discrimination: Universal Barriers for Women? 19 |
|
|
How
Universal Are Gender Stereotypes? 20
Where Are Gender Stereotypes Most Traditional? 23
Components of Gender Stereotypes 23
The Impact of Stereotypes 24
Prejudice: Negative Evaluation of Women and Their Work 25
Sexism’s Links with Other Forms of Prejudice 27
Discrimination: Keeping Women Down and Out 32 |
|
Summary
37
Key Terms 38 Discussion Questions 38 For
Additional Reading 39
Web Resources 39 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
2
Female-Male Comparisons: The Meaning and Significance of Difference |
40 |
A Brief History of the Research 42
Approaches to Knowledge: Issues of Method, Evidence, and Truth 46 |
|
|
Feminist
Issues and Influences in Psychological Research 46
Quantitative or Qualitative Research: How Important are Numbers? 48
Doing Science:
Logical Positivism, Essentialism, and Social Constructionism 49
What Is Good Scientific Evidence? 52
Alternative
Approaches to Knowledge 58 |
|
Gender
Differences and Similarities in Abilities or Styles 60 |
|
|
Research
on Differences 61 |
|
|
Explanations
for Gender Differences in Performance 71 |
|
Gender Differences and Similarities in Aggression 76
Explaining Differences and Similarities: Can Biology and Environment
Be Separated? 78
The Meaning of Difference 80
The Question of Differences: The Wrong Question? 81
Summary 82
Key Terms 84 Discussion Questions 84
For Additional Reading 84
Web Resource 85 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
3
Growing Up Female: The Female Body and Its Meanings |
86 |
Sexual
Differentiation: How Bodies Become Female or Male 88 |
|
|
Step 1: The Chromosomes 89
Step 2: The Gonads 90
Step 3: Hormones 91
Step 4: The Internal Reproductive Tract 91
Step 5: The External Genitalia 91
The Language of Sexual Differentiation 92 |
|
Does the Brain Differentiate by Sex? 92
The Next Step: Rearing 95 |
|
|
Intersexuality
and Behavioral Gender Differences 98 |
|
The
Female Body 101 |
|
|
Menstruation 102 |
|
|
Pregnancy
and Childbirth 112 |
|
Controlling
the Female Body 115 |
|
|
Female Genital Mutilation 115
Virginity Testing 118
Abortion 118 |
|
Confining
the Female Body: Seclusion, Covering, Binding 121
Displaying the Female Body 123 |
|
|
|
Body Shape and Weight 124
Face, Skin, and Hair 129 |
|
Summary
131
Key Terms 132 Discussion Questions 133 For
Additional Reading 133
Web Resources 134 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
4
Growing Up Female II: Expectations, Images, and Identities |
135 |
Theories
of How Gender Shapes Who We Are 137 |
|
|
Psychoanalytic/Identification
Theories 137 |
|
|
Evolutionary Theories 144
Social Learning Theories 149
Developmental Theories 152
Beyond Childhood: Social Roles 153 |
|
Models and Media Messages around the World 154
What Does It Mean to Be “Feminine”? 161 |
|
|
Psychological Androgyny 161
Gender Schema Theory 163
Gender-Based Identity and Other Identities:
Shaping the Pool of Possible
Selves 165 |
|
|
Identity Flexibility and Change 171
The Self as a Cultural Construction 172 |
|
Summary
174
Key Terms 175 Discussion Questions 175 For
Additional Reading 176
Web Resources 176 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
5
Getting The Message:
Self-Confidence, Assertiveness, and Entitlement |
177 |
Self-Confidence,
Courage, and Femininity 179 |
|
|
Girls’ Self-Confidence 180
A Loss of Self-Esteem at Adolescence? 186
Confidence, Education, and Life Choices 195
Culture and the Construction of Entitlement 200 |
|
Girls
and Women Using Power 202 |
|
|
Entitlement and the Use of Power 202
Reactions to Female Power 204 |
|
Summary
190
Key Terms 191
Discussion Questions 191
For Additional Reading 191
Web Resources 192 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
6
Connections: Communicating with and Relating to Others |
210 |
Communication
213 |
|
|
Verbal
Communication 213
Nonverbal Communication 224
Why
Should Gender Be Related to Communication Patterns? 228 |
|
Friendship
229 |
|
|
Friendships between Women 229
Women’s
Friendships with Men 21838
How Friendship Patterns Reflect Social Context 239 |
|
Summary 240
Key Terms 221
Discussion Questions 221
For Additional Reading 222
Web Resources 222 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
7
Family and Intimate Relationships |
244 |
The Context of Intimate Relationships: Family Structure 245
The Couple Bond 248 |
|
|
Love 248
Power, Influence, and Equality in Couple Relationships 252
Must Everyone Be Part of a Couple? 260
Marriage: Legalizing the Couple Bond 261 |
|
Families
and Parenthood 266 |
|
|
Mothers
and Children 267
Mother—Daughter Relationships 275
Fathers and Children 277
Women Who Do Not Have Children 280 |
|
Summary
256
Key Terms 257
Discussion Questions 257
For Additional Reading 257
Web Resources 258 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
8
Women’s Work |
284 |
Job,
Family, and Household Tasks: All of It Is Work for Women 286 |
|
|
Women’s Paid Work 289
Women’s Unpaid Work 291 |
|
Equity
and Discrimination 293 |
|
|
Discrimination
in Hiring, Evaluating, and Paying Workers 295
In
Search of Gender Equity in the Workplace: Some Remedies 308
Perceptions
of Fairness and Reactions to Affirmative Action 317 |
|
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace 320
A Family-Friendly Workplace? Striving for Work—Family Balance
324 |
|
|
Childcare: A Thorny Issue 326
“Best Practices” by U.S. Companies in Aid of a Comfortable
Work—Family Balance 327 |
|
Having
It All? Stress and the Double Day 328 |
|
|
Staying
Busy, Staying Healthy? 328 |
|
The Future of Women’s Work 329
Summary 332
Key Terms 334 Discussion Questions 334 For
Additional Reading 334
Web Resources 335 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
9
Physical Health, Illness, and Healing |
336 |
Women’s Strength and Fitness 338
Women and Physical Illness around the World 343 |
|
|
Life Expectancy 343
Some Major Health Problems for Women 344 |
|
Factors
Related to Women’s Health 357 |
|
|
Health-
and Illness-Related Behaviors 357
Poverty and Nutrition 360
Stress and Social Support 361 |
|
|
Poverty and Nutrition 360
Stress and Social Support 361 |
|
Women as Patients in Health Care Systems 365
Women as Healers 369
Summary 374
Key Terms 375 Discussion Questions 375 For
Additional Reading 375
Web Resources 376 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
10
Mental Health, Illness, and Therapy |
377 |
Gender
and Mental Health 378 |
|
|
A
Double Standard of Mental Health? 379 |
|
Women
and Mental Illness around the World 380 |
|
|
Depression 382
Eating Disorders 392
Anxiety Disorders 397
Alcohol and Drug Abuse 400 |
|
Diagnosis
and Treatment 404 |
|
|
The Politics of Diagnosis 404
Psychotherapy 408
Drug
Therapy 414Drug
Therapy 414 |
|
The Social Construction of Women’s Mental Disorders 416
Summary 417
Key Terms 418 Discussion Questions 419 For
Additional Reading 419
Web Resources 420 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
11
Myths and Scripts for Women Growing Older |
421 |
The
Social Construction of Women’s Aging 423 |
|
|
Images of Decline: Media Messages about Women’s Aging 423
Missing Images: Invisible Older Women 426
Images of Power: Stronger, Older Women 427 |
|
Encountering
Menopause: The Cultural Shaping of a Physiological Event 431 |
|
|
The Physical Change 432
The Experience of Menopause across Cultures 432
A Brief History of Medicine’s Approach to Menopause 435
The Debate over Hormone Replacement Therapy 437
Menopause and the Politics of Aging across Cultures 439 |
|
New
Roles and Relationships 441 |
|
|
The Empty Nest: Loss or Liberation? 441
Career Change and Retirement 443
Losing a Life Partner 444 |
|
Rejecting the Message of Decline 447
Summary 448
Key Terms 449 Discussion Questions 449 For
Additional Reading 449
Web Resources 450 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
12
Sexualities |
451 |
Research on Sexuality: Where Do Our “Facts” Come From? 453
Sexual Desire and Sexual Response 458 |
|
|
The
Medical Model of Sexuality and the Veneration of the Orgasm 462
|
|
Sexual
Orientation 466 |
|
|
Defining Sexual Orientation 466
Is Women’s Sexual Orientation Inborn? Discovered? Constructed
All of the Above? 469 |
|
The
Social Context of Sexual Behavior 471 |
|
|
Culture
and Sexual Scripts 471
Issues
in Lesbian Sexualities 477
Sexualities
and Disabilities 480 |
|
Managing
the Consequences of Sex 482 |
|
|
Contraception 482
“Safe Sex” and Sexually Transmitted Diseases 487 |
|
Motivations
for Sex: Issues of Desire, Love, Power, and Money 489
Summary 494
Key Terms 496
Discussion Questions 496
For Additional Reading 96
Web Resources 497 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
13
Violence against Women: A Worldwide Problem |
498 |
Violence
in Close Relationships 501 |
|
|
Dating Violence
502
Violence in Heterosexual Marital Relationships 505
Intimate Partner Violence among Lesbians, Bisexual Women, and
Transgender Persons 513
Explaining Partner Abuse 514 |
|
|
Violence
in Lesbian Couples 456
Explaining Partner Abuse 514 |
|
Sex-Selective Abortion, Infanticide, and Systematic Neglect of
Girls 517
Sexual Violence 518 |
|
|
Rape
and Sexual Assault 519
Sexual Abuse of Children 528
Forced Prostitution and Sex Slavery 529 |
|
Sexual
Harassment, Bullying, Intimation, and Stalking 533 |
|
|
|
Pornography
and Sexual Violence 535
Intimidation through the Media: Stalkers and Serial Killers as
Entertainment 536 |
|
Torture and Ill-Treatment of Women in Custody 538
Protecting Women from Violence: Some Strategies 538
Freedom from Persecution on the Basis of Gender: A Human Right 542
Summary 543
Key Terms 545 Discussion Questions 545 For
Additional Reading 545
Web Resources 546 |
|
|
|
|
|
CHAPTER
14
Leadership, Power, and Social Change |
547 |
Images
and Stereotypes of Powerful Women 549 |
|
|
Power and Femininity Don’t Mix 549
Invisibility 556 |
|
Motivation,
Skills, and Styles in the Use of Power 558 |
|
|
Do Women Want to Lead? 559
Claiming Leadership: Women and Men in Groups 560
Styles of Power and Influence 563 |
|
Inequality vs. Empowerment: Women around the World 567 |
|
“It’s
Not in Her Head”: Barriers to Power for Women 570 |
|
|
Glass Ceiling or
Labyrinth? 570
An Unwelcoming Environment 571
The Difficult Process of Change 575 |
|
Women
in Power 577 |
|
|
Women as Political Leaders 577
Women, Resistance, and Collective Action: Wielding and Building Power
from Below 582 |
|
Women Claiming Power 589
Summary 591
Key Terms 592 Discussion Questions 592 For
Additional Reading 592
Web Resources 593 |
|
Glossary
594
References 605
Credits
Author Index 681
Subject Index 696 |