Laurie Cubbison

Radford University

Broadcast Standards and Practices:

How American Networks Edit Anime for English-Speaking Audiences

Pokémon. Digimon. Dragon Ball Z. Cardcaptors. Gundam. Each new fall season brings a new set of cartoons to children’s television, and over the past several years more and more of these cartoons are coming from Japan. While Japanese animation serves as the medium for television series and movies aimed at everyone from very young children to adult men and women, the primary American animation audience is considered to be young boys. As a result, anime that is aired on American television is often edited in order to appeal to that audience and to keep from offending their parents, with the Standards and Practices office of American television networks serving as the arbiter of American values.

The Children’s Entertainment Industry

Children’s entertainment is a global industry including television series, movies, toys, comic books, games, and videos, with all of these products closely interconnected through licensing agreements and merchandising tie-ins. At this point, the biggest players are the western media conglomerates –Disney Corporation, AOL/TimeWarner, Viacom and News Corporation – and Japanese toy and game companies – Bandai, Sega and Nintendo. Many of the cartoon series derided by advocacy groups as being little more than program-length commercials are children’s anime that have been developed by these Japanese toy companies. Pokémon, for instance, was developed as a card and video game by Nintendo, and Digimon started out as a digital pet marketed by Bandai.

The media conglomerates enter the picture as their children’s television programming divisions are the primary American television outlets for anime. AOL/TimeWarner owns both the WB network, on which KidsWB programming appears, and the Cartoon Network. News Corporation recently sold the Fox Family Channel and Saban Entertainment Inc to the Walt Disney Corporation, with Fox Family Channel then becoming ABC Family and the shows packaged by Saban Entertainment Inc. moving from FoxKids, News Corporation’s children’s television division, to ABC properties in 2002 (Austin). Shows produced by Saban include Digimon and Power Rangers as well as other Japanese imports. Meanwhile News Corp has leased its Saturday morning block to 4Kids Entertainment, a company that provided KidsWB with such anime series as Pokémon and Yu-Gi-Oh (Lowry). Viacom’s Nickelodeon channel is limited in its anime programming, currently only airing a new version of Speed Racer, one of the first Japanese series to air worldwide. These networks are also the primary television outlet for children’s anime in other English-speaking countries as well through Fox Kids Europe and Cartoon Network’s many international outlets.

Several US and Canadian companies are responsible for repackaging anime for English-speaking audiences. The repackaging process begins with the translation of the series into English and then dubbing and/or subtitling the series for distribution through VHS, DVD or network airing. Except for specialized channels like the International Channel, only dubbed versions of anime appear on networks. A VHS version may be either dubbed or subtitled, while the DVD version will contain both. As a result, anime fans have gravitated to the DVD platform since it will accommodate both those fans who prefer dubs and those purists who prefer to hear the original Japanese dialogue.

Whether or not a series is repackaged further depends on whether the company intends to sell the series for airing on a television network. Currently the following networks air anime: Fox, KidsWB, ABC Family, Cartoon Network, Encore Action, Showtime Beyond, and the International Channel. As secondary premium channels available only via satellite or digital cable, Encore Action and Showtime Beyond show anime that is dubbed but otherwise unedited, but only as a portion of their overall offering. Other premium channels may show anime movies such as Princess Mononoke or Ghost in the Shell dubbed, but also unedited. Of the networks only the International Channel shows anime subtitled and unedited, although a few public television stations in markets with large Asian populations also show anime series.

North American versions of anime dominate the English-speaking world of children’s entertainment. Hiring and recording a cast of dub actors is an expensive proposition, and so the anime companies tend to only make one English version for global distribution. In addition, FoxKids and Cartoon Network have international network affiliates, and so the version of a series that has been edited for U.S. is very often the version that airs in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. An example of the situation that arises is Escaflowne: produced in Japan, dubbed in Vancouver, British Columbia, edited in the United States, and distributed in the U.S., U.K. and Canada. Even though Escaflowne was canceled in the United States after several episodes, the rest of the edited version continued in Canada and the U.K. Cardcaptors, dubbed by the same Vancouver studio, has been seen in U.K., Canada, and Australia, as well as the United States, but the version shown in Australia had the original episode order restored, as well as the original opening.

The Role of the Network Censor

Beyond dubbing and translating, an anime series intended for airing on one of these children’s programming networks will receive additional editing by the network’s American standards and practices department, a practice referred to as localization, or the tailoring of the show to American audiences. Different networks localize anime series to varying degrees based on the gender and age of the target audience and according to varying network philosophies on localization. Localization consists of four varieties of changes to an existing anime series: demographic shift, Americanization, narrative restructuring and values-based editing.

Studies of children’s entertainment and the role of the network censor in children’s television, such as the book Saturday Morning Censors by Heather Hendershot, have focused on the relationship between cartoon producers and network censors, but not on the censorship of existing series that are brought to the United States and then edited for a new audience. While Hendershot discusses the fact that American-produced animation is often animated in Asia, she is not aware that some of the programs she discusses, such as Mighty Orbots and Voltron, are Asian in origin, Japanese specifically, and are repackaged for English-speaking audiences. Rather she perceives the Asian names listed in the credits as overseas labor for the American animation industry. In addition, studies of children’s entertainment, such as Norma Odom Pecora’s The Business of Children’s Entertainmen,t tend to overlook the role played by Japanese toy and game companies in producing shows and toys for the world market, seeing Japan as a market for American products rather than producers of programs for export. Much of this misreading of the production history of such shows can be attributed to the extent to which they were localized.

As described by Hendershot and by Maureen Furniss, the usual relationship between producers and network censors occurs at the script stage. Furniss describes the battles between Ren and Stimpy creator John Kricfalusi and the Nickelodeon network, resulting in Kricfalusi’s dismissal. In discussing the implications of network censorship for foreign-produced series, Furniss goes onto describe the construction of Robotech from three separate anime series in the 1980s by Carl Macek:

In modifying the episodes, Macek stresses that his intention was to ‘adapt’ rather than ‘translate’ the series. He says he considered the cultural significance of the product in relation to its new audience, as well as the original language of the production, but he was interested in ‘the soul of the work’ rather than what each character said literally. (206)

Furniss reports that Macek’s mandate from NBC was to eliminate blood from violent scenes, and she cites an analysis of the series by Anthony Beal that argues that Macek’s edits actually serve to heighten the violence because even though the most violent scenes were removed, so were other less-action oriented scenes that served to balance the violence in the original (207).

As a result of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, a rating system designed to work with V-chip technology within television sets was implemented. The rating system was intended to rate programs according to target age groups, and eventually additional ratings for types of content were included. The rating for each show now appears in the top left corner of the screen as the show begins:

• TV-Y – appropriate for all children
• TV-Y7 – appropriate for older children (at or over the age of seven years old)
• TV-G – appropriate for general audiences
• TV-PG – “parental guidance suggested”
• TV-14 – intended for teen and adult audiences
• TV-MA – “for mature audiences only” due to sexuality, language or violence

According to Joanne Cantor, content ratings include D for sexual dialogue, V for violence, L for language, S for sexuality. Violence is further described with FV, for fantasy violence that may appear in programs for older children.

The Target Audience: Boys, Ages 6 to 11

One way in which anime may be repackaged in the west is through a demographic shift in the target audience of the show. Because of the toy market, young boys are considered to be the principal cartoon audience in the United States. In order to lure advertisers, programs are targeted at this audience, which can create difficulties when a Japanese series designed for a different demographic is licensed for airing on a U.S. network. The Japanese audience for animated series is much broader, including girls as well as boys, and a broader age range, from pre-school to adult. Shows that are chosen for U.S. broadcast because of their proven popularity in Japan, regardless of their intended demographic, are often shifted to a different audience in the west. For instance, Escaflowne, an adventure serial featuring a 15-year-old girl and boy as main characters, and intended to appeal to an adolescent audience of both girls and boys was edited in such a way as to de-emphasize the main female character and the more romantic parts of the narrative so as not to turn off the young boy audience.

The demographic shift experienced by Cardcaptor Sakura in its transformation to Cardcaptors resulted in the most drastic repackaging of any of the recent anime series airing on U.S. television. In its Japanese incarnation, Cardcaptor Sakura tells the story of a 10-year-old girl – Kinamoto Sakura – who discovers that she must use her magical powers to capture magical cards that have escaped to create havoc in her community. Intended for girls of the same age as its heroine, the show is very “cute” and very girly, although with a good bit of action. In the eighth episode she acquires a male rival, Li Shaoron, who is also seeking to capture the cards and take advantage of their power. As the two capture cards, the powers of those cards are then available for use in capturing other cards. The demographic shift to include an audience of boys as well as girls prompted KidsWB to raise Li’s status within the narrative through several moves, most notably the elimination of the first seven episodes which preceded his entry into the story, the elimination of romantic elements (although several of these almost certainly disappeared in values-based editing as well), and the elimination of other “girly” episodes later in the series.

Giving American Children Characters They Can Identify With (Or not)

Americanization refers to the altering of the characters and setting of an anime series to more closely match the experiences of a white, middle-class American child. Japanese names of child characters may be changed to American ones, as when Satoshi and Kasumi of Pokémon were renamed Ash and Misty. The setting may change from a Japanese community to an Americanized one, as when the town of Tomoeda as the setting for Cardcaptor Sakura was renamed as Reedington in Cardcaptors. However, Americanization may also involve the digital erasure of signs in kanji and kana and their replacement with Roman letters, as well as the cutting of scenes and episodes that deal significantly with Japanese culture. Currently, anime series airing on KidsWB appear to undergo the most Americanization, those on the Cartoon Network the least, and those on the FoxKids block that has just moved to the ABC networks falling somewhere in between.

The three anime series shown primarily on KidsWB over the past few years are also the ones undergoing the most Americanization: Pokémon, Cardcaptors and Yu-Gi-Oh. Both Pokémon and Yu-Gi-Oh are localized by 4Kids Productions. Pokémon is set in an alternate reality – Pokémon World – which while it mimics the real world in some aspects is completely fantastic in others, even though it is “steeped in Japanese culture.” According to Laurel Graeber, “The American producers go through each episode frame by frame, painting over any Japanese characters. And their work on the scripts goes far beyond translating and dubbing.” Graeber quotes Norman Grossfeld of 4Kids Productions on changes to personalities of the characters, jokes, and the “‘Eastern philosophy of life in the original.’” Grossfeld continues, “‘The goals and physical humor of each episode are the same, but word for word we change it’” (qtd. in Graeber). Al Kahn, also of 4Kids, said in a Los Angeles Times article that:

“We spend a fortune on localization,” Kahn says. “[Episodes] are not just dubs, we rewrite them, re-score them, re-storyline them. We want to be sure that it’s exactly going to be something that American kids understand and like. We may spend another 50% of what we pay for them [in rights] just to localize them.” (Mallory)

All the events of Cardcaptor Sakura take place as magical adventures in the real world, and the show is the most Americanized of the anime series that have appeared on US television in the past five years. When Cardcaptors was first announced, Sakura had been renamed Niki (Surette), to the howls of anime fans. As a result of the protests, Sakura retained her given name, but her family name changed from Kinomoto to Avalon, and the names of all the other characters changed.

An interesting contrast is the series Digimon, which was produced by Saban Entertainment, first for FoxKids and now for ABC/Disney. The setting of Digimon includes both the real world and a fantastic Digital World, but the real world setting is identified as Tokyo, with a tour of other countries occurring in its second season. The third season takes place in the Shinjuku section of Tokyo, with well-known landmarks on view. For the most part, the names of the Digimon child characters are, if not their original names, fairly close Anglophone equivalents, or else Anglophone nicknames are given that match some aspect of the character’s Japanese name, such as Koushiro “Izzy” Izumi and Yamato “Matt” Ishida.” The third season of Digimon features features a half-Chinese family. In the Americanization of the show, the boy’s name was changed from Jenrya Lee to Henry Wong, but his father, who becomes a major character in the series, retains his Chinese name, Janyu. In Digimon there’s been no effort to translate the Japanese text. Indeed Digimon, along with the Gundam series, both from Bandai, has an international sensibility even in its Japanese version, with Janyu presented as one of an international group of computer programmers who had created the digimon monsters.

At this point, Cartoon Network does very little Americanization of its anime series, with the exception of Hamtaro, whose characters’ names have been Anglicized. The target audience for Hamtaro is considerably younger, however, than the target audience for the rest of Cartoon Network’s anime audience, which may account for the difference. In the Mallory article above that quoted Kahn, Dea Perez of Cartoon Network, was quoted as saying “‘We’re trying desperately not to [Americanize]….We may tweak a couple of things for American audiences, but we don’t want to Americanize the shows at all.’” While some of the Cartoon Network series, like Dragon Ball Z, are set in an only vaguely, Earthlike world, many of the series, the various Gundam series in particular, already had a global sensibility in their Japanese incarnations, featuring characters of European, Asian and American descent living in space. Even so, the Japanese stereotypes of other nationalities that appear at various points can be jarring to westerners, and so some Americanization by the U.S. producers may downplay certain stereotypes that are considered offensive in the United States.

Changing the story: Narrative Restructuring

Another form of repackaging is narrative restructuring. Most American cartoon shows use an episodic structure for their narratives, with each episode being the equivalent of a short story using a certain cast of characters. For example, Powerpuff Girls is a half hour show that may tell one or two self-contained stories during the program. Those self-contained stories do not carry a narrative arc between programs. Events that take place in one episode do not continue to influence the story in another, unless the producers decide to make a follow-up story. This narrative structure enables broadcasters to air the episodes in any order. The anime series, in contrast, use a serial narrative form, with each episode containing events that have implications for future episodes to a greater or lesser degree. Pokémon, while largely episodic in terms of the story structure of each individual program, still maintains the narrative frame of Ash Ketchum traveling from gym to gym for Pokémon battles that will enable him to compete in the league tournaments. Meanwhile, other series are novel-like in their structure, taking 50 episodes or more to reach the conclusion, Gundam Wing being an excellent example.

The effects of narrative restructuring are most clearly seen in the cases of Cardcaptors and Escaflowne, both of which were shifted to the target market of young boys. However, the ways in which the narratives of these series were restructured is quite different, even though both made extensive use of flashbacks. Remember that the premise of Cardcaptor Sakura is that Sakura and Li Shaoron capture additional cards using cards they already have. During the transformation of the series into Cardcaptors, the narrative was restructured in order to eliminate episodes that would not appeal to boys, and the order of the episodes was changed in order to place the more exciting captures early in the series so as to attract and sustain an audience. As a result, the cards were being captured out of order, with flashbacks used within in an episode to show how a card that was being used had been captured, even though the episode in which the card had been captured aired later or not all.

In an interview with Andrew Osmond of Cinescape, Germaine Turner, editor of Escaflowne for FoxKids, pointed out additional reasons for restructuring the narrative of a show being shifted to a younger audience. The target audience of the series in its original form consists of male and female adolescents, with the show combining characteristics that in Japan are coded as appealing to female or male audiences. Hitomi, the lead female character, is a magical girl with fortune-telling abilities, and the story addresses the romantic relationships she finds. Van, the lead male character, pilots a mecha, a giant mechanical fighting armor common in many anime intended for teenage boys. The series has a serial narrative style, using foreshadowing and flashbacks through Hitomi’s visions of the future. According to Turner, while FoxKids hoped to attract a broader audience with the series, it still needed to edited for FoxKids’s primary demographic: 6- to 11-year-old boys. As was the case with Cardcaptors, the female lead was downplayed, and the first episode was deleted, with specific scenes appearing later in the form of flashbacks. Also often appearing later in the form of flashbacks were Hitomi’s visions of the future, which were moved from their fore-shadowing position in the narrative. Values-based edits also resulted in changes to the narrative as the editor made up for time cut from one episode by inserting scenes from the next episode.

Pleasing the Parents: Editing for Values

In using the term values-based edits, I’m referring to edits of material that is considered inappropriate for American children’s television. Kyle Pope tracks edits for animenewsnetwork.com, comparing the televised version with the uncut, subtitled DVD version of the show. He recently conducted an interview with Jason Demarco Sr., writer and producer for Cartoon Network’s Toonami block, the network’s first block of anime.

According to Demarco, value-based edits for Toonami shows include:

Alcohol consumption (directly), Gambling (directly), abuse of minors, blood from any major wound, language (obviously, this includes “kill” and references to God, as well as the whole spectrum of “swear” words), and- here’s where it gets tricky- “situations considered too brutal or intense for younger viewers”.

Additionally, smoking is also prohibited, as are implied female nudity, sexual references, and religious references. According to Demarco,

Being a big fan of Tenchi [Muyo], I wanted to preserve scenes we would otherwise have to cut out of the series. I also felt that cutting out all of the nudity would leave us with a story that is total gobbledygook. This involved painting on bikinis, painting out blood, re-editing for time (hated that), and having new voice over read. That required gathering all of the actors who hadn’t worked on that show in quite a while, going through every single script, and then making necessary changes.

Such edits often involve cultural differences between Japan and the United States over such practices as bathing in an onsen, or hot spring, so that even implied nudity is forbidden, according to Demarco:

Well, as you know the majority of our audience is boys 9-14, but we still have a great deal of children 6-11 watching every day. This being the case, even implied nudity- i.e., two ladies talking to one another with nothing but towels on- has to be toned down. It may seem silly to you, but the parents of younger children really demand this sort of thing.

Failure to make values-based edits may have consequences for the network airing a program, as Demarco explains:

Any direct references to religion, especially juxtaposed with violence, sexuality or hypocrisy, is not allowed. Here’s an example: in Tenchi Universe, there is an episode where Ryoko goes to a slot machine. In the unedited version, there were Stars of David on the machine (!). We didn’t notice this, and when it aired we had several people calling to complain and even threatening to sue.

Although anime fans such as those Pope represents resent such edits as detracting from the artistic integrity of the anime series, the network executives who air the shows are forced to be conscious of not only the target audience, but also the concerns of parents.

Of the networks airing anime on U.S. television, Cartoon Network is not only the most likely to engage only in values-based edits, but it is also the one pursuing an older audience than the 6- to 11-year-old age group. According to Dea Perez, Cartoon Network’s vice president of programming, “the network is cognizant that [anime] attracts older viewers. ‘Anime programming has a much broader appeal than many of our shows. It’s more sophisticated by nature,’ she said. ‘It’s rooted in myths and legends’” (qtd. in Reynolds).

Cartoon Network first began pursuing an older audience of anime fans by presenting Gundam Wing in two versions. Gundam Wing, a series telling the story of an ongoing war and the roles played by five 15-year-old mecha pilots, required minimal editing to meet Toonami’s Y-7 standard, the primary edits being references to death. For example, one pilot who nicknamed himself the God of Death was re-nicknamed as the Great Destroyer, with “destroy” being a standard euphemism for “kill” in edited anime. The Y-7 edited version ran in Toonami’s afternoon block (which extends from 4 pm until 7 pm). As the dubbed but unedited version was being prepared for dvd release, Cartoon Network began running the unedited version in its midnight time slot. Response was such that the network began developing the Adult Swim block, a block of anime and American cartoons that were intended for an adult audience and edited to a TV-14 standard, and disclaimers posted to warn parents that the programs in the Adult Swim block were not intended for young children. Cowboy Bebop was the first adult anime added to the line-up. The block was so successful that an additional night was added, dividing the block into two: Adult Swim Comedy, consisting of American cartoons such as Space Ghost Coast to Coast and Baby Blues; and Adult Swim Action, consisting of Japanese anime. However, at the time that the network moved to add the action block, it had several already edited series waiting to be added to the Toonami block. Those series, with their Toonami-level edits, were added to the Adult Swim Action block instead, leading many anime fans to wonder how serious the network actually was about presenting un-edited anime. As the block has matured, however, the Toonami series are being replaced by series licensed and edited specifically for Adult Swim. And yet, as this article is being written, the Adult Swim block is changing to five nights a week, with Cowboy Bebop and Inu-Yasha to air at midnight Monday through Thursday beginning January 12, 2003.

The choice of Inu-Yasha serves to indicate, I would argue, a shift in the attitude of American networks towards animated series produced in Japan. No longer are such series simply cheap programming underwritten by licensing deals with toy manufacturers, as they were in the 1980s, but now they are airing because of their own audience appeal as an alternative to American narrative and art design. Inu-Yasha is based on a comic book by a famous manga artist Rumiko Takahashi, and the storyline has deep roots in Japanese history and folklore.

Whether or not the networks themselves are paying attention to the fandom, the production companies that localize anime series for the networks are being forced to offer uncut versions of their series on videotape and digital videodisc. Usually the series for younger children are not marketed to anime fans. For instance, Pokémon and Digimon are only offered on video in their localized forms. Objections to the Americanization of Cardcaptors were so strong, however, that Nelvana, and its distributor Pioneer (which distributes a substantial percentage of the anime available in English-speaking countries) were compelled to release subtitled-only VHS and DVD versions of Cardcaptor Sakura as well as VHS and DVD versions of Cardcaptors. Incidently, the VHS and DVD release of Cardcaptors has been suspended prior to finishing the series because of poor sales.

American re-packagers of anime are thus left in an awkward position: License the series to the networks, have them drastically edited by Standards and Practices to suit American parental advocacy groups and and then alienate the purist-minded anime fandom that actually purchases the resulting videos. However, it does seem that American networks are beginning to value the unique qualities of Japanese animation and not just simply the availability of inexpensive, pre-existing programming, complete with pre-existing merchandise. However, the next few years will determine whether Japanese animation remains a mainstay of the children’s entertainment market, or settles into a niche market for its older fans. The tension between these markets will remain a major issue for producers and network executives.

Works Cited

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