This section should contain one or two extremely well crafted paragraphs that succinctly state exactly what is the purpose of your paper. These paragraphs are an outline of your entire paper. Begin your paper with some derivative of the statement: "The purpose of this paper is---." Usually, these paragraphs determine the level of organization of your paper. If they are difficult to write, stop and rethink what your are trying to say.

This description usually is relatively short, less than six paragraphs. You can present it as a singular theoretical issue (i.e., "Functional theory argues such and such and therefore this paper investigates the theoretical importance of ....") or as a theoretical debate. For example, the debate could be framed as: "The culture of poverty theory argues that racism is not central to understanding Afro-American poverty. However, critical theory, Bonanich (1979), argues that racial discrimination is a relevant factor. In this section, each theoretical perspective is elaborated and specific research hypotheses are generated. The rest of your paper will review the literature that examines these hypotheses.

This is a state of the art review of the theoretical and empirical literature on your topic. State of the art means that your literature review includes a review of the most recent research on your topic (1998). This review must include a brief review of the major theoretical sources (usually seminal books), as well as a review of the empirical research presented in the journals. An A paper includes an extensive and thorough review of journal articles. Thorough means a complete coverage of the different dimensions of your research problem. A clue for when to stop doing further journal research is when you pick up a journal article on your subject and you are relatively familiar with 60% of the cited references. (Newsweek, etc., is not a journal). This section is the most important, grade-wise, and therefore you should spend most of your time in writing a clear, succinct, and thorough review of the literature. This section has no minimum or maximum page limit. The length reflects the extensiveness of your library research.

This section briefly reviews the major findings of your review of the literature. It also includes a description of the major shortcomings of the research on your topic. To demonstrate your knowledge, this section must be clearly written.

This section relates to your introduction and your presentation of the theoretical importance of your research. Statements such as: "In general-, the research findings support the conclusion that racism (is or is not) related to poverty in the United States." You should be able to complete this section in two or three pages.

Given that now you are relatively expert on a specific narrowly defined subject, you should tell the reader what needs to be done in the future to more fully address the theoretical and pragmatic issues related to your subject. This section can be theoretical and/or empirical.

VI. Optional

Policy implications. Given that you are a relative expert on your subject and that you are policymaker, what do you suggest needs to happen to eliminate or lessen the severity of your research problem? Your personal opinions are not legitimate unless your review of the literature supports them.

Do not footnote your references. The following is the proper format for directly citing a reference:

If you paraphrase someone's work, you must cite your reference (name, date). Each name that appears in the text of your paper must be included in your list of references (bibliography). Footnotes should be used when you want to further elaborate a point made in your paper. These are sequentially ordered and are included immediately after the last page of the text and immediately before your bibliography.

Using information published on the web

I will not accept citations for research materials published on the web unless they are from referred journals such as JSTOR.  That is, you can use web materials as long as they are electronic versions of referred journal articles. However, I will accept data published on the web if it is from an official government agency such as the Census Bureau.

If you find a website that is relevant to your topic, find the sources that were used to create it.  Read these sources in their original form.  Do not assume that materials published on the web are factual and accurately portray the intent of the original authors.  Only cite "research" that uses the scientific method (explains how the data were collected and analyzed) and is anonymously referred.  See me if you have any questions concerning the validity of your web related sources.

I took the following directly from the Student Handbook. If you do not properly cite your sources, I take 25 points off the grade of your research paper and you must rewrite it. An additional 5 points are taken off for each day the paper is late. "Plagiarism is the use of the distinctive ideas or words belonging to another person without adequate acknowledgement of that person's contribution. In the context of academic work the standards for acknowledging sources are very high. An author must give due credit whenever quoting another person's actual words, whenever using another person's idea, opinion or theory, and whenever borrowing facts, statistics or illustrative material, unless the information is common knowledge.

1. Direct Quotation: Every direct quotation must be identified by quotation marks or by appropriate indentation, and must be promptly acknowledged. The citation must be complete and in a style appropriate to the academic discipline.

The following is an example of an unacknowledged direct quotation:

Original Source: "To push the comparison with popular tale and popular romance a bit further, we may note that the measure of artistic triviality of works such as Sir Degare or even Havelok the Dane is their casualness, their indifference to all but the simplest elements of literary substance. The point is that high genre does not certify art and low genre does not preclude it." (From Robert M. Joran, Chaucer and the Shape of Creation/Howard University Press, 1967/p. 187.)

Student Paper: "To push the comparison with popular tale and popular romance a bit further, you can note that the measure of the artistic triviality in some works of Chaucer's time period is their casualness, their indifference to all but the simplest elements of literary substance. The point is that high genre does not certify art and low genre does not preclude it."

2. Paraphrase: Prompt acknowledgement is required when material from another source is paraphrased or summarized in whole or in part in one's own words. To acknowledge a paraphrase properly, one might state: "to paraphrase Locke's comment . . .- or "according to Rousseau . . ." and conclude with a citation identifying the exact reference.

A citation acknowledging only a directly quoted statement does not suffice to notify the reader of any preceding or succeeding paraphrased material.

The following is an example of an unacknowledged paraphrase:

Original Source: "The era in question included three formally declared wars. The decision to enter the War of 1812 was made by Congress after extended debate. Madison made no recommendation in favor of hostilities, though he did marshal! a "telling case against England" in his message to Congress of June 1, 1812. The primary impetus to battle, however, seems to have come from a group of 'War Hawks' in the legislature." (From W. Taylor Reveley III, "Presidential War-Making: Constitutional Prerogative or Usurpation?", University of Virginia Law Review, November 1969/ footnotes omitted.)

Student Paper: "There were three formally declared wars during this era. The decision to enter the war in 1812 was made by Congress after extended debate. Madison actually made no recommendation in favor of hostilities in his message to Congress of June 1, 1812, though he presented a persuasive case against Britain. The primary impetus to battle, however, appears to have come from a group of 'War Hawks' in the legislature."

3. Borrowed Facts or Information: Information obtained in one's reading or research which is not common knowledge must be acknowledged. Examples of common knowledge might include the names of leaders of prominent nations, basic scientific laws, etc. If there is doubt whether information is common knowledge the citation should be given.

Materials which contribute only to one's general understanding of the subject may be acknowledged in the bibliography and need not be immediately cited.

One citation is usually sufficient to acknowledge indebtedness when a number of connected sentences in the paper or report draw their special information from one source. When direct quotations are used, however, quotation marks must be inserted and prompt acknowledgement made. Similarly, when a passage is paraphrased, prompt acknowledgement is required."

You must receive approval of your research topic. If you do not receive approval of your research project, your paper will not be accepted and you will receive a 0 for 25 percent of your grade. Additionally, if you change the topic of your paper after its original approval, you must receive approval of your new topic. Failure to receive approval results in a zero grade. You must see me for the approval of your research topic by Wednesday of the seventh week of the course. If you do not see me by Wednesday of the seventh week, 5 points are taken off the grade of your paper. An additional 5 points are taken off for each week that transpires. By Wednesday of the ninth week of the semester, you must turn in a short summary of three journal articles that you are using for your research paper. These summaries consist of at least five typed sentences describing the major findings of the article.

Use the following format:

Article 1:

Preble, Edward E. and John J. Casey.

1969 "Taking care of business: The heroin user's life on the streets." International Journal of Addictions, Vol. 4, pp. 1-24.

These authors found - - -

If I do not receive these summaries by Wednesday of the ninth week of the semester, 5 points are taken off the grade of your research paper. An additional 5 points are taken off the grade of your research paper for each additional week that transpires.

By Wednesday of the eleventh week of the semester, you must turn in an outline of your research paper. This outline is the basis for your paper. An additional 5 points will be taken off the grade of your research paper if you do not hand in this outline.

Collaborative learning has many benefits including creating a sense of cooperation and community. It also enhances the learning process by creating the opportunity for students to honor the diversity of opinions and styles of understanding that exist. I will team you up with one other student. Your team will be responsible for creating your research paper. Each member of the team will share the grade that I assign to the team's research paper. Any member can request a team meeting with me if that person feels the team is not working as a team. I will dissolve the team if the problems persist (by the end of the tenth week). If I dissolve the team, each person will be responsible for turning in a research paper which they have entirely written by themselves.

Your team is required to exchange a final draft (make two copies) of your paper with another team in the class. Your team must exchange papers with another team by Friday of the third to last week of classes. Over the weekend, your team is responsible for thoroughly reading over, reviewing, and grading (a numerical score) the other team's paper. Your team can create a separate sheet to include your team's comments on or your team can add comments in the margin of the typed paper. Your team must return the paper with a grade, comments, etc. to the other team by the following Monday. This will allow them two days to revise their paper based on your team's comments. Turn in a copy of your team's peer review to me (if your comments, etc. are on the paper then photocopy it and turn it in). I will take five points off the grade of your team's paper if your team's peer review is not substantial.

You must proofread your paper before turning it in. 5 points are taken off the grade of your paper for each five grammatical and/or spelling errors. Use a word processor's spelling and grammar check to avoid losing these points.

Your team paper must be, at least, ten typed pages. I take ten points off for each page less than 10.  I will also deduct points off if your paper is less than 10 but greater than 9 (e.g., 5 points for a half of a page).  You must number your pages starting with the first page of text (exclude the title page).  These 10 pages must be all text. That is, all tables must be included in a separate appendix attached to the end of your paper. This appendix does not count toward the l0-page minimum requirement. You must reference at least 6 journal articles. Each article less than 6 results in 10 points off your final grade of the paper. The left-hand margin of your paper must be set at 1 1/4". Your right-hand margin must be set at 1/2". The top and bottom margins must be set at 1 1/2". (Just use the default settings on your word processor--they will be fine). This includes your first and last page. Any deviation from these margins results in 10 points off your grade. The 10-page length of your paper does not include your bibliography. The paper must be double-spaced, typed and single-spaced between new headings. You must use a font size of 12 and preferable a Times New Roman, Arial, or Courier font. The paper is due by 5:00 p.m., on Wednesday of the second to last week of classes. Late papers are graded down 5 points for each day they are late; this includes Saturday and Sunday (no exceptions).

Do not put the titles of articles in the text of your paper. Just reference the name(s) of the author(s) (Greenwood and Press (1989) suggest . . .). Also, do not use your textbooks as a reference. Your textbooks do not contain original research. Any direct quote longer than three sentences must be indented five spaces and single-spaced. Usually it is not a good idea to quote material directly that is longer than five sentences. In this case, you should paraphrase the material.

You must turn in a hard copy and a hypertext version of your team paper. You can turn in the hypertext version on a floppy or email me a copy as an attachment. I will post your team's paper on the World Wide Web. I will have a link ("student papers") to all the team papers from the "Assignment" web page.

• Team appointment to go over the topic of your paper: 7th week of classes
• Summary of Articles: 9th week of classes
• Outlines: 11th week of classes
• Peer review: By Friday of the third to last week of classes
• Paper Due: Wednesday of the second to last week of classes